Cognitive
The first article selected for this section, Psychotherapy According to the Socratic Method: Integrating Ancient Philosophy With Contemporary Cognitive Therapy (Overholser, 2010), discusses the comparison of cognitive therapy with the Socratic Method, and how the Socratic Method can act as a framework for therapy. In this writing, Overholser basically delineates how the Socratic Method can be used with the bounds of cognitive-behavioral therapy. The article breaks down the method into four components, beginning with systematic questioning that is used to help guide the conversation with open-ended questions used to encourage the client to think and talk. This is followed by the use of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is used, like in traditional cognitive therapy, “to help clients move away from specific events in order to identify general principles, patterns, or themes that might be present across diverse events” (Overholser, 2010). Part three includes moving the client away from idiosyncratic meanings of words and thoughts, and help them to explore universal definitions, “In true Socratic style, the dialogue aims to refute the client’s original definition, delimit overgeneralizations, and gradually collect a string of examples that moves the client toward a new and more useful definition” (Overholser, 2010). Finally, the fourth part of the Socratic Method is what might be referred to as “Socratic Ignorance.” Put in more plain language we might say that the therapist is avoiding the role of expert. They are helping the client explore what the client thinks they know to help them reach a more open position about certain beliefs. This paper, overall, is very theoretical in nature. The writer does not introduce experimental or even antidotal evidence, that the Socratic Method is compatible, but possibly useful as a tool within cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Article two of this section, The Role of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Behavioral Medicine: Introduction to the Special Issue (Hart, 2010), considers the role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in medical situations, and summarizes several empirical studies. This article basically relates how CBT has helped within the context of medical treatment. Of all of the situations presented, the article describes the situation best in this statement, “These cases display how cognitive-specific strategies such as developing cognitive coping statements can be instrumental in distress-related treatment outcomes in medical patients” (Hart, 2010).
Psychoanalytical
As with most psychoanalytical therapy, everything I have read for this paper has left me shaking my head, and asking why it is relevant. However, I know that it is important to understand in spite of how I feel personally. The problems of intentional therapist self-disclosure in psychoanalytic therapy: a critical response to Gavin Ivey (Knight, 2009) provided something topical, but surely not eye-opening. The writer, theoretically, feels, “Freud’s notion of the analytical relationship continues to restrain the psychoanalytic community today from freely exploring the technical use of self-disclosure” (Knight, 2009). Knight advocates the liberal use of disclosure by the therapist as a way to help balance the client-therapist relationship. She believes the, “optimal balance between participation and non-intrusiveness cannot be established by a set of rules or a model technique. Rather it must emerge from within the analytical work between a particular patient and a particular analyst, and will likely, from moment to moment, change within the same session” (Knight, 2009).
Michael Ermann writes, in his editorial Psychoanalysis and globalization, about how the changing landscape around the world is having an impact on psychoanalysis. The main idea of the writing is how the ideas of the east, which are fundamentally different than those in the west upon which psychoanalysis was hewn, will cause those who utilize psychoanalytical therapy to change their traditional approach. He focuses on the idea that the changes in society at large, relate directly to changes in the unconscious as well.
Humanistic
Humanistic Psychology and the Contemporary Crisis of Reason was quite the laborious read. This writing flows in and out of the “why do we have to be so phallencentric” in thought. It also discusses that there should be more input from a sociopolitical perspective. One very interesting quote says, “there is great faith placed in the belief that we co-constitute our world and our experience” (Cosgrove, 2007). Once again this line of thought brings us back to the core of most of the problems with the various psychological perspectives, in which the idea of the autonomous self. Being the center of our own universe leaves no room for God. Cosgrove recounts that since humanistic ideas have become so clinical, there is no room for the opening of the mind to its full potential.
After much searching, I finally found an article that caught my eye. Obuchowski’s Alfred Adler: Precursor of Humanistic Psychology proved to be somewhat interesting as compared to everything else researched to this point. This article on first glance seems to be comparing Individual Psychology and Humanistic Psychology, and this is the main topic written about. Obuchowski reports that Alfred Adler had formed a basic concept of humanistic psychology well in advance of its actual acknowledgement. Adler developed a concept of “striving to superiority.” It was his idea that the world changes along a continuum from worse to better. Carl Rogers referred to this idea as our “actualizing tendency.” They both believed that this “tendency” was common to all life forms. However, the humanistic approach tells us that we need to concern ourselves with being better educated and better socialized. Obuchowski points out one big difference between Adler’s idea and humanism, “The Third Force in psychology was oriented more toward the natural human capacity to do well, to do better, but not to do so for social interest” (Obuchowski, 1988). The common theoretical theme continues to appear throughout humanistic thought once again illustrated here in the self being the center whether or not social well being is even in the picture.
Behavioral
Helping the Student with Asperger’s Disorder with Social and Behavioral Issues in the
School: Nursing, Psychology, and Educators Working in Unison is an eye opening look into Asperger’s Disorder and how to treat it within the school setting. The article discusses the main areas at issue for this type of student and how to assist with the problem behavior in ach situation. The article discusses how the use of positive reinforcement can improve the learning environment for both the student and the teacher. It does state that, “there will inevitably be situations that are unexpected or over-stimulating for the student and may lead to melt-downs” (Bellando, 2009). That means no matter how good the positive reinforcement is, it is not going to be the be-all-end-all for the person suffering from AD. This means that other forms of behavior modifications must be employed along with positive reinforcement.
Differentiating Social and Personal Power: Opposite Effects on Stereotyping, but Parallel Effects on Behavioral Approach Tendencies, is empirical look at power and its effects. This article looks at different studies and attempts to answer the question, how does power affect behavior? They writers discuss the different types of power consisting of social power and personal power. They determine that “Power has a strong influence on human behavior” (Lammers, 2009). The basic hypothesis of the entire writing is that to study power in a broad context will not be without limitations. However, they conclude by “ finding that general behavioral approach is unaffected by the distinction between social and personal power does not mean that more specific behavioral effects are similarly unaffected. It is the distinction between independence and interdependence” (Lammers, 2009) that is more important.
Reference
Overholser, J. C. (2010). Psychotherapy According to the Socratic Method: Integrating Ancient Philosophy With Contemporary Cognitive Therapy. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 24(4), 354-363. doi:10.1891/0889-8391.24.4.354
Hart, T. A. (2010). The Role of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Behavioral Medicine: Introduction to the Special Issue. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 24(4), 243-245. doi:10.1891/0889-8391.24.4.243
Knight, Z. G. (2009). The problems of intentional therapist self-disclosure in psychoanalytic therapy: a critical response to Gavin Ivey. South African Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 93-98. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Ermann, M. (2009). Psychoanalysis and globalisation. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 18(4), 195. doi:10.1080/08037060903411860
Cosgrove, L. (2007). Humanistic Psychology and the Contemporary Crisis of Reason. Humanistic Psychologist, 35(1), 15-25. doi:10.1207/s15473333thp3501_2
Obuchowski, K. (1988). Alfred Adler: Precursor of Humanistic Psychology. Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice, 44(3), 263. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Bellando, J., & Pulliam, E. (2009). Helping the Student with Asperger's Disorder with Social and Behavioral Issues in the School: Nursing, Psychology, and Educators Working in Unison. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 14(3), 210-214. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6155.2009.00201.x
Lammers, J., Stoker, J. I., & Stapel, D. A. (2009). Differentiating Social and Personal Power: Opposite Effects on Stereotyping, but Parallel Effects on Behavioral Approach Tendencies. Psychological Science (Wiley-Blackwell), 20(12), 1543-1549. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02479.x
