There have been several social events that have helped to set the course of modern day group therapy work. Helping people with severe medical issues, assisting parents as they learn how to understand children, dealing with interpersonal relationships, showing people learn how to overcome biological addictions, understanding social constructs, specialized settings to promote unity in the workplace are only a limited pieces of the giant jigsaw puzzle that makes up the picture of group therapy work.
1900 - 1999
Although there are many social events that contributed to group work during the 20th century, this paper will only focus on a few that stood out a little more than the others. The foundation for group work is said to have started with Joseph Hersey Pratt. He saw how the tuberculosis patients he was working with had trouble taking care of themselves properly, and he wanted the patients to understand how they could help in their own healing process and be inspired to face everyday life with a chronic illness. His activities are documented in a report from the AGPA in which they write that Pratt, "conceived the idea of having large numbers of patients meet at the hospital to discuss their attitudes, and receive instruction from him" (History, 1971). This, although not called group therapy, sure meets the modern idea of what group therapy can look like. Pratt is only one of many "players" in the development of group work. Moreno began his Theater of Spontaneity which is the precursor to psychodrama. Adler, McKown, Sherif, Perls, Schultz, Burrows, Allport, Whyte, Wender, Lewin, and many others contributed during this time as well.
Alfred Adler made many contributions to the field of psychology, and contained in those contributions he advanced theories that contributed to group work as well as other areas of psychology. Adler's idea of individual psychology contains the idea that, "personality incorporates social as well as biological factors" (Schultz & Shultz, 2008). Therefore, we might conclude from his idea that social interaction and environment might both be important to address when people are in need of psychological help. Group work can provide the social interaction that could help the patient move past biological/environmental aspects to achieve a more holistic healing. Adler also emphasized the idea that humans have an, "innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal and societal goals" (Schultz & Shultz, 2008). As we look at the proliferation of groups in every conceivable area of life I believe Adler, focusing on conscious behaviors, may have contributed the most, at least theoretically speaking, to modern group work.
The study of groups in natural settings became another way through which group work evolved through the 20th century. There are several "players" in this area as well, and focusing on who contributed the most is a tough task. For purposes of this writing, the focus will be on William F. Whyte. He actually worked within (infiltrated the a gang) the group he desired to study. The group of Italian men (the gang), with the exception of one man, had no idea what he was doing. Several things make the work he did stand out when discussing the aspects of group work, one of which is because, "Most social scientists of the 1940s thought gangs were socially disorganized, random deviant groups, but Whyte's study showed otherwise" (Andersen & Taylor, 2008). Whyte discovered the true organized nature of the group, and how it had its own, "social hierarchy, morals, practices, and punishments for deviating from the norms or rules of the gang" (Andersen & Taylor, 2008). The implications and correlations on how the group "had a dramatic impact on the individuals' lives" (Gladding, 2012). The study shows how groups, when organized correctly, can have a huge impact on personal and social behaviors.
The 1960s proved to be very pivotal in the growth of group work. Vietnam, the increasing social activism, social strife, and race relations helped the field of psychology grow as people began to search for ways to respond, cope, and solve the problems that arose during this decade. The expansions of groups following this time produced some of the largest movements in group work. The first name that stands out is Carl Rogers. He is the "Godfather" of encounter groups. Rogers ideas were rooted in Lewin's T-Groups that were established in the 1940s. The main ideas of this type of group revolved the sharing of emotions with no agenda, no real structure, and no real guidance from the facilitator. I believe these groups have done more harm than good, and I have written about it extensively elsewhere. For this paper I might suggest that Rogers ideas brought about many changes in group work, but I not sure how many are good changes. However, Rogers was not alone in this respect.
Bach and Stoller developed marathon groups around the same time as Rogers began his endeavors. The marathon groups claimed that if all adults and adolescents had been involved in marathon group therapy there would be no war or crime. Once again these guys set group therapy back several steps with "crank" methodologies and ideas. While this topic is on the table, a look at the trifecta that caused the setback is in order.
Groupthink, made famous by research from Irving Janis, makes up what I like to call the third spoke in the "feel good, act ignorant" movement of the 1970s. William Whyte coined the term "groupthink" as a description of rational conformity to group values even at the expense of the values of the individual (my definition). This is a natural outflow from Whyte's earlier research with the gang he infiltrated. The group influencing the individual is not necessarily a bad thing, but it is necessarily bad when people bend their own "right thinking" in response to group pressure to conform. Assuming groups of people will adhere to rational thinking is a dangerous assumption. There is a quote I love to use when teach people about the pitfalls of church polity, and it goes like this, "never underestimate the power of stupid people in large groups." It probably seems a little harsh until one thinks about the fact that the people we are ministering to (read "dealing with") within the church were by and large raised on or by parents that were corrupted by the trifecta of the 1970s. Everything was not bad during the 1970s, but it sure seemed that way.
Yalom's basics for group leaders seems like a good place to look for how a group should operate. He posited some basic tasks that group leaders need to adhere to that includes, "Ensuring the physical survival of the group, build a group culture and establish therapeutic norms, and teach and model for the group members" (Flores, 1997). Yalom gets credit for giving us the "nuts and bolts" of therapy even though he says very little about how he arrived at his approach to therapy.
Even with the 1970s, the 20th century ended with a few good ideas. the 1990s gave us published professional standards for training group workers through the ASGW. Parenting, cooperative, focus, and business related groups are just a few of new types of group that arose due to social changes and a desire to promote teamwork that came along during this time.
2000 - Present
There have been some changes since 2000, but most of them are technology related. Increased training and education needs have been fostered on a group level within the business world via the internet. The connectivity we have today allows people to participate in groups that can include others from all over the world. The positive outcome should be that in the diversity of experiences of those participating all members should be able to learn something. The inner-connectivity goes beyond business groups to include educational groups as well. Web-CT and Blackboard are two newer type interfaces that allow people in rural or remote locations attend classes and interact with the instructor and class members in ways that used to only be possible when physically attending the school.
One other major social shift affecting groups would be the world of medical managed care. With insurance companies wanting to reduce the amount of money paid to clients, brief group work has seen an interesting level of growth. The insurance companies push the therapists to move quickly through their process by only agreeing to pay certain amounts, or for limited amounts of time. Along with speed, brief group work has changed the concept of outcomes at various levels. Most notably it has become more solution focused. That means that brief group work has shifted all the way across the spectrum from the person-centered approach of the previous century. Bureaucrats in charge of group therapy is a scary proposition.
The social influences on group work has been, like just about any movement, quite a roller-coaster ride. It has experience a lot of ups and downs, and a lot of twists and turns. One wanting to enter this field might want to hold on.
Works Cited:
Andersen, M., & Taylor, H. (2008). Sociology, Understanding a Diverse Society (4th Edition ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Higher Education.
Flores, P. J. (1997). Group Psychotherapy with Addicted Populations (2nd Edition ed.). Binghamton, NY: The Hayworth Press.
Gladding, S. T. (2012). Groups, A Counseling Specialty (6th Edition ed.). Boston: Pearson.
History, C. o. (1971). A Brief History of the American Group Psychotherapy Association 1943-1968. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy.
Schultz, D., & Shultz, S. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology (9th Edition ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
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